Blog Post #4

 EOTO - Paper

Types of Paper

Stone cave walls, tree bark, papyrus and clay tablets, and animal skin all have one commonality - they were all written/drawn on before the invention of paper. The word "paper" is derived from the word "papyrus", which is an Egyptian-styled thick writing sheet. Paper throughout history hasn't just been used for writing, but as wrapping material, toilet paper, tea bags, napkins, and more. Cai Lun (202 BCE-220 CE) was a Chinese official (more specifically, a eunuch), that worked in the Imperial court during the Han Dynasty. Cai Lun, also known as Ts'ai Lun, is known for being the inventor of paper and the paper-making process, although there is some speculation that he may have, instead, improved an already-created process of paper-making. The paper that Cai Lun is said to have created was found to be better quality for writing on, and less expensive to produce.

Cai Lun

Cai Lun created his paper using mulberry and other fibrous materials from plants, along with old rags, hemp waste, bamboo, tree bark, and fishnets. His process went as so:

    1. Boil the ingredients together

    2. Beat the ingredients

    3. Mix the ingredients with water

    4. Process the mixture with wooden sieves

    5. Remove the excess water

Today, paper is made in a less time-consuming manner. Paper in our modern world today is mostly made from cellulose, a fiber from trees, though other materials such as straw, hemp, jute, cotton, flax, rice, wheat, esparto, and manilla are also commonly used. The typical mechanized production of paper today utilizes the following steps:

    1. Pulping from wood chips (manufactured chemically or mechanically)

    2. Removing excess water, causing fibers to be spread out ("sheet formation")

    3. Drying sheets over a series of cast-iron cylinders

    4. Applying a film of chemicals to the surface of the dried paper

Fourdrinier Paper Machine

Modern-Day Paper Machine

Paper was initially manually made as single sheets, one at a time, until the invention of the first paper machine by Nicholas-Louis Robert, in France in 1799. From there, in Britain in 1806, the Fourdrinier paper machine was improved and patented by Henry and Sealy Fourdrinier in Britian. Then, in 1809, John Dickinson invented the cylinder mould paper machine. Looking forward in history from here, inventions were created that allowed for paper-forms of media to be mass-produced as well, such as the printing press.

Printing Press

The use of paper is so wide and versatile today: printings, packaging, writing, cleaning, decoration, wallpaper, toilet paper, tissues, currency and security papers, paper plates (1904), cardboard boxes (1870), paper cups (1908), insulation, photography, and much more. Paper has changed how people live their day-to-day lives superfluously - activities and tasks have become easier and quicker to accomplish. Furthermore, communication has drastically changed - paper is one of the most important forms of media today. From newspapers, to books, to letters, paper allows for the thoughts and perceptions of individuals to be written/typed and physically held.

While there are many benefits from paper being used as heavily as it is today, there are some negative effects that come from it as well. Pulp and paper mills largely contribute to water, air, and land pollution. The process of making paper has negative extremities, such as the number of trees that are cut down, and the amount of water that is used. A great percentage of landfills, too, are filled with paper products. With all of this being said, paper has clearly greatly benefited our society throughout history, although it may be even better that so many things are transferring to being online.

Stack of Paper

Blog Post #3

 The First Amendment, and the Eight Speech Theories

First Amendment

The First Amendment was written by James Madison in 1791. There are six clauses to the First Amendment, relating to the freedom from religion, the freedom of religion, the freedom of speech, the freedom of press, the freedom of assembly, and the freedom to petition. These six freedoms make up the so-called "Shield of First Amendment", which exemplifies how the First Amendment protects and allows citizens to develop their own beliefs, share their beliefs, and act upon their beliefs. The First Amendment is arguably the most impactful and important amendment in the Constitution, as it applies to so many aspects of life. There are eight speech theories that have been created by scholars, in order to explain why the freedom of expression is so utterly crucial to us, as Americans. The eight speech theories include:

    1. Marketplace of Ideas, 

    2. Participation in Self-Government, 

    3. Stable Change, 

    4. Individual Self-Fulfillment, 

    5. Check on Government Power, 

    6. Promote Tolerance, 

    7. Promote Innovation, and

    8. Protect Dissent.

Freedoms Mentioned in the First Amendment

While each of these eight speech theories hold to be true and significant, I find that Marketplace of Ideas, Individual Self-Fulfillment, and Check on Government Power are arguably the most crucial, or relevant. I believe that the Marketplace of Ideas theory feels the most personal, the Individual Self-Fulfillment theory is put to action the most, and the Check on Government Power theory is the most important.

Marketplace of Ideas, to be put simply, is a theory that explains that the truth will always prevail, and will be made stronger, when battling against deception and dishonesty. One area of life that the Marketplace of Ideas theory is seen to be prevalent is throughout different forms of media and communication; newspapers, social media, journals, etc.. American citizens are free to write/speak about their opinions and thoughts on different topics and events because of the First Amendment. Election season is a big time-period in the political world, during which disinformation about candidates is often spread by other campaigners, and supporters of the campaigners alike. This is the very reason why Marketplace of Ideas is is so important and pertains to everyone - individuals have the opportunity to cancel any falsehood being spread, and can report on the truth, without any worry of lash back.

Individual Self-Fulfillment is a theory that demonstrates that individuals are free to express themselves in any way that they please - this expression of freedom is a big part of what makes up an American citizen. Individual Self-Fulfillment is demonstrated and embodied by individuals every single day. People have the opportunity to dress as they like, speak about whatever topics come to mind, create art and publish writing that expresses however they may feel, etc.. Individual Self-Fulfillment, I believe, is the most important of the eight speech theories, because it is what allows American citizens to be their own unique, respective person.

The theory of Check on Government Power describes the idea that citizens of the United States, once they learn of abuses of power, can take action and do something about the wrongdoings. Citizens, along with the three branches of government, work alongside one-another to keep the system in balance. While they might be overlooked, citizens play one of the biggest roles in keeping our government system in balance, and ensuring that this country continues to stay a democratic nation. Citizens have the free opportunity to petition, vote, speak out, write, etc.. about topics/events/happenings in the country, in order to share and express their opinions and attitudes.

Gathering in Front of U.S. Capital

One recent event that relates to the First Amendment first-hand is a lawsuit filed against Utah by The Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression, in regard to the state's new social media law for minors. This lawsuit is called the Social Media Act, and relates to the theories of Individual Self-Fulfillment and Promote Innovation. The law limits both how and when minors can utilize different social media platforms. This goes against the Individual Self-Fulfillment theory because it limits minors from freely expressing themselves and partaking in conversations online, as the new law claims that minors must have parental consent and show verification of their age before utilizing these forms of media. This new law goes against the Promote Innovation theory because the free speech of the minors is not valued in this sense, but instead is pushed-down and reduced. The First Amendment is one of the twenty-seven amendments to our nation's Constitution - each and every one holds importance, along with the promise that our country will continue to be a free nation. Every single day there are cases and trials being argued that relate to the First Amendment, and it will be a never-ending process of protecting the speech theories that go along with it.

Blog Post #2

The Supreme Court

The Current Supreme Court Justices

The United States Supreme Court, or the USSC, is the highest court in the United States of America, and holds the greatest judiciary power. Justices serve an average of sixteen years, each of them being assisted by a small staff of law clerks and secretaries. There are currently nine Supreme Court Justices:

    1. Justice John Roberts, 

    2. Justice Clarence Thomas, 

    3. Justice Samuel Alito, 

    4. Justice Sonia Sotomayor, 

    5. Justice Elena Kagan, 

    6. Justice Neil Gorsuch, 

    7. Justice Brett Kavanaugh, 

    8. Justice Amy Coney Barrett, and

    9. Justice Ketanji Brown Jackson.

The Supreme Court interprets our country's 200-year-old Constitution and applies the interpretations to cases brought to the court, with the goal of keeping the United States the freest nation in the world. The Constitution expounds on the ideals and values of our country. As the second video about the Supreme Court states, "the power of the court is the power of trust earned - the turns of the American people." This statement is so effective in describing the great stature, presence, and control that the Supreme Court holds over the country.

Beginning of the U.S. Constitution

I plan on going into law, which augmented my interest of the two videos that we watched, and their overarching topic of the Supreme Court. It was fascinating to learn about what the Supreme Court Justices do, and the different sides to their job. One fact that I found to be astounding was that petitions arrive by the thousands year after year. More than one-hundred cases a week show up on the steps of the Supreme Court - most of them are written arguments that a lower court was incorrect, or amiss, with their decision. The Justices meet weekly, in order to decide which cases the Supreme Court will look into further and make decisions on. An important piece of information that I learned that holds the Supreme Court to be true is that every petition receives individual, equal consideration. The facts of cases are established in the Trial Courts, which leaves it up to the Supreme Court to consider the question of the law, its place in the case of question, and its position in the forever-proceeding cases.

U.S. Supreme Court

One piece of new information that I plan on researching more on is the Oral Argument - one hour of "high drama" (Part || Video). The Oral Argument is the time for the Justices to ask the hard questions that are raised from the briefs. A simple way of putting it: the Oral Argument is when "the court is having a conversation with itself" (Part || Video). As Justice Kennedy put it, when speaking about the Oral Argument, "It has to make a difference. That's the passion and the power and the poetry of the law - that a rhetorical case can make a difference, because abstract principles have to be applied in a real life situation" (Part || Video). The Oral Argument was focused on so strongly in the video that I became engrossed in the topic, and I highly look forward to learning more details about it.

After a decision has been made by the Justices on the case that they have chosen comes the Opinion writing - the most time-consuming part of the Justices' work. One Justice from the majority side will write the Opinion, and the draft will go back and forth between Justices for editing. The reason of the decision, the wording of the Opinion, and even sometimes the actual decision of the case can change after the Justices have finished their editing of the draft. Other Justices may draft their own Opinion - whether that be to explain the minority opinion, or because they agree with the majority opinion but disagree with the reasoning thereof.

The work of the Justices is art - it is austere yet intricate, and forever exciting and raising curiosity. Before watching the two videos, my understanding of the Justices' jobs was slight. I was remarkably surprised to learn how hefty the work is that they do. Listening to some of the Justices being interviewed about the different processes that they go through and the different areas of their work opened up my mind to how difficult their job is, and how much pressure they must feel every day. Their work is "interpretive philosophy", and they help to make up an entire branch of the government. Without the Supreme Court, our country would truly not be what it is today. Learning more about the Supreme Court has led me to become even more excited about becoming a lawyer, and with that, joining a group of people that fight to keep this country one of the most influential, leading, and freest nations in the world.

Blog Post #1

Top Five Sources of News and Information

Information and knowledge can be gathered through so many different forms of media, and because of this, the material being communicated holds different biases. We live in a world today where gaining knowledge is a multi-step process, including reading and analyzing information from different sources so that oneself can make their own opinions on any given topic. Politics tend to hold weight in almost any and every topic today, meaning that there are multiple "sides" to events, ideas, and messages. In order to widen the lens of  understanding of the news, and to learn the facts, one must utilize various sources. Personally, my top five sources of news and information include my family and friends, Google, The New York Times, Tik Tok, and Instagram. These sources, both tangible and intangible, have allowed me to learn and expand my knowledge and understanding of the world around me.

1. Family and Friends

My main source of news and information comes from the people that I most closely surround myself with: my family and friends. College has allowed me to grow close to people from all over the world, and to resultantly call them my friends. These people, while we’re all around the same age, have all had so many different life experiences than myself. In-turn, these differing life experiences have helped to mold their opinions and beliefs into what they are, just as my own have been shaped. I find myself very often sitting in a room with my friends, conversing on a story or piece of news about something going on in the world. These types of conversations typically lift off into an exciting and energetic discussion, in which more knowledge of the topic is shared and different opinions are explained. I find it to be so beneficial to focus on listening in conversations like these, instead of jumping in to share my own viewpoint. This is because after a period of time listening to different attitudes and conclusions, my understanding of the topic grows and evolves. This idea of listening and learning from others relates to my family, as well. I’m a part of a family of six, with two younger sisters and a younger brother. I hear different kinds of information from both my siblings and my parents, because of the difference in age. What might be important, breaking news to my siblings is not often shared by my parents, and vice versa. My siblings keep me updated and in-check with the new pop culture happenings, while my parents more so keep me on top of the news that they find crucial for me to understand. From my family and friends, the information that I hear and the viewpoints that are explained to me help me to grow into a more well-rounded individual, and sharpen my own beliefs and values.

2. Google

One of my most-used sources that I utilize to learn and grow my knowledge of different topics, or events and happenings around the world, is Google. Google is a search engine that allows for an individual to explore websites, videos, articles, news stories, books, etc. that relate to the key words in the search bar. Personally, I spend a great amount of time on Google researching various things for different classes and interests of mine. Google makes it easy to go down a so-called “internet spiral”, as one link after another about a related topic pops up. I've found this to be beneficial, as it's grown my knowledge of many topics vastly. Google also has a section of their business called Google News, which offers articles on top stories of the day, and stories relating to topics such as World, Entertainment, Sports, Science, and Health. I would make the argument that most of the new information that I learn and delve into research about is from Google. I have found myself reading an article for class on Google, and the next second I find myself having clicked on multiple related websites, having been sucked into this online world of knowledge. From here, ideas, stories, and events that I learn about on Google can be brought into conversation with my family and friends - allowing for the continuous cycle of intellectual growth.

3. The New York Times

The New York Times is another source that I use to expand my knowledge about world events and happenings. I had initially started to use The New York Times occasionally throughout high school for research papers and projects, though I slowly began to venture to the website out of curiosity. About 75% of the time, while on The New York Times' website, I read articles about world/US breaking news, such as political affairs and scandals. The other 25% of the time I read articles in a less serious manner, about topics such as lifestyle and well-being trends. I appreciate that I can go to The New York Times’ website and explore an array of topics, and resultantly feel both informed and interested at the same time. One aspect of The New York Times that I acknowledge and enjoy is the variety of article lengths; some being eight-hundred words and others being over twelve-hundred words. With this being said, whether I want to quickly catch myself up on a current event, or I want to delve into a current fixation of mine, I know that The New York Times offers the ability to do both.

4. TikTok

TikTok is widely known for being a form of media focused on entertainment, however it also holds the power to share and spread important information. I try to limit my time spent on social media apps each day, such as TikTok, Instagram, and Snapchat. With that being said, I don’t feel as guilty using those apps when I am focusing on learning or growing my knowledge on certain intellects. There are specific accounts/people that I follow on TikTok that all have their own niche, whether that be lifestyle areas, such as workouts and foods, scientific-related topics, history, or travel/world locations. TikTok is such a unique form of media because of the fact that anyone on the app can be a content creator. Any individual that has an account on the app can create and post a video, with the possibility of over one billion people accessing, viewing, commenting, sharing, and liking the video. This allows for the quick flow of information to be passed around, and with that, new ideas to come into fruition.

5. Instagram

Instagram, while it is an app that is widely used to showcase people's life highlights and updates, is also greatly used as a space to teach, influence, and share knowledge and ideas. I use Instagram to keep up with family members and friends that I don't see often, as well as to learn about specific areas of interest, and to keep up with current happenings around the world. Instagram has become a widely-used media source by people of all generations. The app started as a way to post simple photos and videos from one’s life. Now, the app has developed into being used widely by different businesses and people looking to expand their audiences, and share what they want. One aspect of Instagram that I recognize and support, in regard to accessing new information, is that Instagram will show “related posts” to the one that is already being viewed. This allows for the user to learn and attain information about the same/similar topic as was shown in the initial post. Furthermore, the ability to click on a user’s profile and view their entire account as a whole is extremely useful, especially if that user has a dedicated page to a certain vocation.